List of emperors of the Ming dynasty
| Emperor of the Great Ming | |
|---|---|
| 大明皇帝 | |
Imperial | |
 | |
 | |
| Details | |
| Style | His Imperial Majesty (陛下, 皇上, 萬歲) |
| First monarch | |
| Last monarch |
|
| Formation |
|
| Abolition |
|
| Residence |
|
| Appointer | Hereditary |
The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Its founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove the Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new dynasty and declared himself its first emperor.[1]
A total of sixteen Ming emperors ruled over China proper for 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability.[2]
In the late 1620s, a peasant uprising erupted in northern China. The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress it, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor's suicide.[3] To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[4]
Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[5]
The Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[6]
Succession
[edit]
The emperors inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[8] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[9]
Powers
[edit]
In theory, the emperor held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[11] As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations.[12] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[13] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[13] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[13] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[12]
Titles and names
[edit]The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. The emperor was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply 上 Shang).[14] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen characters for Ming emperors, but for example, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three characters.[15] Another name given posthumously was the temple name, used for ceremonies in the ancestral temple of the dynasty.[16]
Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynasty name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[16]
The emperor's era name or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. All Ming emperors, except for Emperor Yingzong, only declared one during their reign. As a result, they are commonly referred to by the name of their era.[16]
The Forbidden City was home to a large population, including the reigning empress (as there could only be one), who resided in a vast hall and participated in several major rituals. Alongside her, the
List of emperors
[edit]Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty, including their personal, temple, posthumous, and era names. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[17]
Ming dynasty
[edit]| Personal name | Portrait | Lifespan | Reign | Era name | Posthumous name[a] | Temple name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 [19] |
|
21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 |
23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398 |
Hongwu 洪武 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399 (22 January 1403)[b] |
Emperor Gao 高皇帝 |
Taizu 太祖 |
| Zhu Yunwen 朱允炆 [19] |
|
5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 |
30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402 |
Jianwen 建文 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402 |
Emperor Hui 惠皇帝 |
– [b] |
| Zhu Di 朱棣 [22] |
|
2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 |
17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424 |
Yongle 永樂 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425 |
Emperor Wen 文皇帝 |
Taizong, 太宗, since 1538 Chengzu, 成祖 |
| Zhu Gaochi 朱高熾 [22] |
|
16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 |
12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425 |
Hongxi 洪熙 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426 |
Emperor Zhao 昭皇帝 |
Renzong 仁宗 |
| Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基 [22] |
|
16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 |
29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435 |
Xuande 宣德 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436 |
Emperor Zhang 章皇帝 |
Xuanzong 宣宗 |
| Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮 [22] |
|
29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 |
31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449 |
Zhengtong 正統 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450 |
Emperor Rui 睿皇帝 |
Yingzong 英宗 |
| 11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464 |
Tianshun[c] 天順 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465 | |||||
| Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺 [23] |
|
21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 |
22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457 |
Jingtai 景泰 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457 |
Emperor Jing 景皇帝 |
Daizong 代宗 |
| Zhu Jianshen 朱見深 [23] |
|
9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 |
23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487 |
Chenghua 成化 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488 |
Emperor Chun 純皇帝 |
Xianzong 憲宗 |
| Zhu Youcheng 朱祐樘 [23] |
|
30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505 |
9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505 |
Hongzhi 弘治 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506 |
Emperor Jing 敬皇帝 |
Xiaozong 孝宗 |
| Zhu Houzhao 朱厚照 [23] |
|
26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521 |
8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521 |
Zhengde 正德 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522 |
Emperor Yi 毅皇帝 |
Wuzong 武宗 |
| Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜 [23] |
|
16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 |
27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567 |
Jiajing 嘉靖 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567 |
Emperor Su 肅皇帝 |
Shizong 世宗 |
| Zhu Zaiji 朱載坖 [23] |
|
4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 |
23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572 |
Longqing 隆慶 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573 |
Emperor Zhuang 莊皇帝 |
Muzong 穆宗 |
| Zhu Yijun 朱翊鈞 [24] |
|
4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 |
5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 |
Wanli 萬曆 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620 |
Emperor Xian 顯皇帝 |
Shenzong 神宗 |
| Zhu Changluo 朱常洛 [24] |
|
28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 |
28 August – 26 September 1620 |
Taichang 泰昌 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621 |
Emperor Zhen 貞皇帝 |
Guangzong 光宗 |
| Zhu Youjiao 朱由校 [24] |
|
23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 |
26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627 |
Tianqi 天啟 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628 |
Emperor Zhe 悊皇帝 |
Xizong 熹宗 |
| Zhu Youjian 朱由檢 [25] |
|
6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644 |
2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644 |
Chongzhen 崇禎 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644 |
Emperor Zhuanglie Min 莊烈愍皇帝 |
Sizong 思宗 |
Southern Ming
[edit]| Title before accession to the throne | Personal name | Lifespan | Era name | Title Reign |
Temple name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prince of Fu 福王 |
Zhu Yousong 朱由崧 [26] |
5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646 |
Hongguang 弘光 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645 |
Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645 |
Anzong 安宗 |
| Prince of Lu (Luh)[d] 潞王 |
Zhu Changfang 朱常淓 [27] |
1608 – 23 May 1646 |
– [e] | Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645 |
– |
| Prince of Tang 唐王 |
Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵 [28] |
25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646 |
Longwu 隆武 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647 |
Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646 |
Shaozong 紹宗 |
| Prince of Lu (Lou)[d] 魯王 |
Zhu Yihai 朱以海 [29] |
6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662 |
Jianguo Lu[f] 監國魯 16 February 1646 – 1653 |
Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653 |
– |
| Prince of Tang 唐王 |
Zhu Yuyue 朱聿鐭 [26] |
1605 – 20 January 1647 |
Shaowu 紹武 [g] |
Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647 |
– |
| Prince of Gui 桂王 |
Zhu Youlang 朱由榔 [28] |
1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662 |
Yongli 永曆 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662 |
Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662 |
Zhaozong 昭宗 |
Posthumously recognized individuals
[edit]This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously.
| Personal name (lifespan) |
Posthumous name | Temple name | Year recognized | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhu Bailiu 朱百六 (?–?) |
Emperor Xuan 玄皇帝 |
Dezu 德祖 |
1368 | Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[30] |
| Zhu Sijiu 朱四九 (?–?) |
Emperor Heng 恆皇帝 |
Yizu 懿祖 |
Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[30] | |
| Zhu Chuyi 朱初一 (?–?) |
Emperor Yu 裕皇帝 |
Xizu 熙祖 |
Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[30] | |
| Zhu Shizhen 朱世珍 (1281–1344) |
Emperor Chun 淳皇帝 |
Renzu 仁祖 |
Father of the Hongwu Emperor[30] | |
| Zhu Biao 朱標 (10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392) |
Emperor Xiaokang 孝康皇帝 |
Xingzong 興宗 |
1399 and 1644 |
Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Hongwu Emperor. Father of the Jianwen Emperor. Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.[31] |
| Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519) |
Emperor Xian 獻皇帝 |
Ruizong 睿宗 |
1538 | Father of the Jiajing Emperor[32] |
| Zhu Changxun 朱常洵 (22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641) |
Emperor Gong 恭皇帝 and Emperor Xiao 孝皇帝 |
Gongzong 恭宗 |
1644 | Father of the Hongguang Emperor[33] |
| Zhu Yuwen 朱宇溫 (1490–1560) |
Emperor Hui 惠皇帝 |
– | 1645 | Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[34] |
| Zhu Zhouyong 朱宙栐 (1538–1564) |
Emperor Shun 順皇帝 |
– | Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[34] | |
| Zhu Shuohuang 朱碩熿 (? – 24 January 1630) |
Emperor Duan 端皇帝 |
– | Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[34] | |
| Zhu Qisheng 朱器墭 (?–1629) |
Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝 |
– | Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[34] | |
| Zhu Cilang 朱慈烺 (26 February 1629 – June 1644) |
Emperor Dao 悼皇帝 |
– | 1646 | Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Chongzhen Emperor.[35] |
| Zhu Changying 朱常瀛 (25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645) |
Emperor Duan 端皇帝 |
Lizong 禮宗 |
Father of the Yongli Emperor[33] |
Timeline
[edit]
Legend:
- Orange denotes Ming emperors
- Cyan denotes Southern Ming emperors
See also
[edit]- Ming emperors family tree
- List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty
- Dynasties of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- Southern Ming topics
Notes
[edit]- ^ These are just the shortened versions of the names. The Hongwu Emperor's full posthumous name, for example, was actually "Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao" (開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝; 'Heaven-Opening, Way-Implementing, Dynasty-Founding, Pinnacle-Standing, Greatly Worthy, Most Holy, Benevolent, Cultivated, Rightteous, Martial, Refined,Virtuous, and Successful Exalted Emperor').[18]
- ^ a b After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[20] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[21]
- ^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.
- ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
- ^ Sometimes referred to as the Regency of the Prince of Lu (Luh)
- ^ Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function; Jianguo literally means "regency".
- ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ Cheng (2009), p. 1483.
- ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
- ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
- ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
- ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
- ^ "Forbidden City | History, Facts, & Map". Encyclopædia Britannica.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
- ^ Huang (1997), p. 189.
- ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
- ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
- ^ Ch’ien (1982), p. 91.
- ^ a b Ch’ien (1982), p. 93.
- ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
- ^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 109–110.
- ^ Moule (1957), p. 106.
- ^ a b c Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History - Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
- ^ Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
- ^ Taylor (1975), p. 31.
- ^ a b Moule 1957, p. 106; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
- ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
- ^ a b c d Moule 1957, p. 107; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ a b c d e f Moule 1957, p. 108; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ a b c Moule 1957, p. 109; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 109; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi; Atwell 1988, p. 637.
- ^ a b Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
- ^ Twitchett & Mote (1988), p. xxiii.
- ^ a b Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
- ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
- ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
- ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
- ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
- ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
- ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
Works cited
[edit]- Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming].
- Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780367374648.
- Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve". The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (4). doi:10.2307/2056469. JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092.
- Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
- Ch’ien, Mu (1982). Traditional government in imperial China: a critical analysis. Translated by Hsüeh, Chün-tu; Totten, George O. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-254-X.
- Hucker, Charles O (1966). The censorial system of Ming China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0289-6.
- Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). Chinese history: a manual. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 0-674-00247-4.
- Brook, Timothy (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04602-3.
- Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
- Cheng, Linsun (2009). Berkshire Encyclopedia of China (5-volume set, 2,800 pages). Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 9780977015948.
- Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
- Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle, Wash.; Chesham: University of Washington Press; Combined Academic. ISBN 0295981245.
- Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1998). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243335.
- Moule, Arthur Christopher (1957). The rulers of China, 221 B.C.- A.D. 1949; chronological tables. New York: F. A. Praeger.
- Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
- Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
- Taylor, Romeyn (1975). Basic Annals of Ming T'ai-tsu. Chinese Material and Research Aids Service Center, Inc. ASIN B076VFSKS1.
- Bo, Yang (2010). Bo Yang quanji: Lishi juan 柏杨全集:历史卷 [The Complete Works of Bo Yang: History Volume] (in Chinese). Vol. 16. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House. ISBN 9787020080014.
- Qian, Haiyue (2016). Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 9787101044294.
Further reading
[edit]- Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
External links
[edit]
- Theobald, Ulrich. "Chinese History - Ming Dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644) emperors and rulers". Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 January 2010.